Abstract:
In recent years after the global financial crisis, these four Latin America countries formed the Pacific Alliance with the Declaration of Lima agreement in 2011. The impetus was to establish an area for mutually supportive trade and investment. Beyond the emphasis on trade in goods and services, the Pacific Alliance supports people’s mobility and higher education exchanges. This regional trade agreement is compared to the European Union, which has even deeper integration through an established common market advance to trade, the Single Market, since 1992. Through the Bologna Process, launched in 1999, the EU and neighbouring countries established the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), in 2010.

Both trade and higher education have continued to expand in the region in recent years. The pandemic of early 2020 has brought a pause to the expansion of educational exchanges. Globalization has resulted in policies of internationalisation, and multilateral institutions have provided the framework for cooperation.

Resumen:
Not available

Author: Beverly Barrett
Full Document: 2021, Barrett, Trade and Higher Education in the Pacific Alliance of Latin America_A Review Paper

Abstract:
There has been a growing interest in social entrepreneurship in recent years, even though there is some confusion or controversy about its meaning. Most of the literature recognises the importance of the articulation of various factors within a favourable ecosystem. Despite this, there are still very few studies related to this subject in Latin America. That is why this article establishes links to the importance of the Pacific Alliance as a regional integration space to promote such initiatives. Based on the analysis of official documents and interviews with decision-makers, factors were identified that, within the Pacific Alliance framework, facilitate the consolidation of social entrepreneurship processes.

Resumen:
En los últimos años ha habido un creciente interés por el emprendimiento social aun cuando existe cierta confusión o controversia sobre su significado. La mayoría de la literatura reconoce la importancia de la articulación de diversos factores dentro de un ecosistema favorable. Pese a esto, aún son muy escasos los estudios relativos a esta materia en el ámbito latinoamericano. Es por ello por lo que este artículo vincula la importancia de la Alianza del Pacifico, como espacio de integración regional para la promoción de este tipo de iniciativas. A partir del análisis de sus documentos oficiales y de entrevistas a responsables de toma de decisiones se identificaron factores que dentro del marco de la Alianza del Pacífico facilitan la consolidación de procesos de emprendimiento social.

Authors: Roberto García Alonso, Ulf Thoene, Ana María Figueroa & Edwin Murillo Amaris
Spanish Title: El Emprendimiento Social en el marco de la Alianza del Pacífico
Full Document: 2020, García Alonso, et al, El Emprendimiento Socian en el marco de la Alianza del Pacífico

Abstract:
This paper analyses innovation behaviour and its link to growth in four Latin American countries that are part of the Pacific Alliance, which are Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. The Granger causality test is used, and the presence of unidirectional and bidirectional causalities between innovation and per capita economic growth is found as a result. These results vary from country to country.

Resumen:
En este trabajo se analiza el comportamiento de la innovación y su vínculo con el crecimiento en cuatro países de Latinoamérica que forman parte de la Alianza del Pacífico los cuales son Chile, Colombia, México y Perú. Se utiliza la prueba de causalidad de Granger y se encuentra como resultado la presencia de causalidades unidireccionales y bidireccionales entre la innovación y el crecimiento económico per cápita. Estos resultados varían en cada país.

Authors: Luis Alfredo Ávila López, Carolina Zayas Márquez & Jorge Alfonso Galván León
Spanish Title: Comportamiento de la Innovación en los Países de la Alianza del Pacífico
Full Document:2021, Avila et al, Comportamiento de la Innovación en los Países de la Alianza del Pacífico

Abstract:
The Pacific Alliance (PA) presents itself as a sui generis ‘mechanism for regional integration’ comprising Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru. In this thesis, I examine the main institutional features of the PA, the factors that explain these institutional choices and to what extent its institutional framework is suitable to support the objectives of the PA in the long-term. The scope of the thesis is threefold: descriptive, explanatory and normative.

I take an interdisciplinary and eclectic approach to study the institutional dimension of the PA. I base my analysis on insights from new institutionalisms — constructivist and rational institutionalisms — while following a legal orientation when reading and applying new institutionalisms. I also employ international institutional law to assess the international legal status of the PA. At the methodological level, the thesis uses qualitative methods — doctrinal and empirical analysis — to address the research questions.

The core argument I develop in this thesis is that rational factors, such as cooperation problems and characteristics of the PA members in the aggregate, and ideational factors explain the PA’s institutional design. External institutional environments also contribute to explain PA’s institutional architecture. Institutional entrepreneurs have carefully crafted organisational and task-related decentralisation, the scope of issues covered, the rules for control, and the array of adjustability devices in its institutional rules. PA’s institutional design is also the result of the revisited neoliberal program amplified at the regional level through the open regionalism and deep integration programs and the frames of flexibility and pragmatism.

I contest, based on empirical evidence, claims about the sui generis nature of the PA’s institutional model of economic regionalism. I also challenge established views about its non-political and non-ideological foundations.

I demonstrate that the PA represents an informal intergovernmental institution (IIG). The PA is not an international organisation invested with international and domestic legal personality. Organisational structures in the PA follow a spectrum of formal and informal arrangements. These structures have, in many instances, responded to what I call demand-based or problem-based approaches in their establishment. Growth and specialisation of organisational structures take place through informal means, which evidences the effects of the ideas of flexibility and pragmatism that frame the PA and its regional integration process.

The thesis shows that the PA relies heavily on soft-law reinforcing its political basis. Mandatory commitments or hard-law approaches refer primarily to the construction of a free trade area as of today while soft-law is predominant in several areas that comprise its large economic and non-economic cooperation pillar.

I maintain that the PA’s current institutional framework does not equip it to respond to the needs for policy coordination and harmonisation, and the development of other regional public goods associated with the goals of its economic regionalism project.

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Abstract:
The study of policies that promote export diversification has become relevant in economies with abundant natural resources. In this context, this study aims to determine the factors that contribute to export diversification, measured by the Theil Index, in the Pacific Alliance during the period 1980-2017. For this purpose, panel data cointegrating regressions with fixed effects (FMOLS) are estimated. Also, the Granger test is estimated to assess the impact in the short term. The results show that increases in the human capital index and inflow of foreign direct investment positively and significantly affect long-term export diversification. Besides, the rise of trade produces and domestic credit to private sector granted by banks positively affects the concentration of exports. Regarding the fixed effects by country, Perú shows the highest intercept, indicating that it is the country with the highest export basket concentration. In contrast, Mexico has the lowest intercept in all the regressions confirming that it has the most diversified export basket due to its geographic advantage.

Furthermore, the short-term analysis indicates that the human capital index is the most endogenous variable. The terms of trade shocks have a high impact when the export basket is concentrated, and there are deficiencies in human capital. For the Peruvian economy, we recommend applying vertical policies that promote the insertion in the global value chain of mining resources and horizontal policies that allow the development of micro, small and medium enterprises.

Resumen:
En economías con abundancia de recursos naturales ha tomado relevancia el estudio de políticas que promuevan la diversificación de exportaciones. En ese contexto, el presente estudio tiene como objetivo determinar los factores más relevantes que contribuyen a la diversificación de exportaciones, medido a través del Índice de Theil, en la Alianza del Pacífico durante el periodo 1980-2017. Para el efecto, se estimaron regresiones de datos de panel en presencia de cointegración según la metodología MCO totalmente modificado o FMOLS con efectos fijos. Asimismo, se estimó la prueba de Granger para evaluar el impacto en el corto plazo. Los resultados muestran que un aumento del índice de capital humano y la entrada de inversión extranjera directa tienen un efecto positivo y significativo sobre la diversificación a largo plazo. Además, se encuentra que el alza en los términos de intercambio y el crédito al sector privado otorgado por bancos tiene un efecto positivo y significativo sobre la concentración de exportaciones en el largo plazo.

Respecto a los efectos fijos por país, Perú muestra el intercepto más elevado, indicando que es el país con mayor concentración de la canasta exportadora. Por el contrario, México tiene el intercepto más bajo en todas las regresiones confirmando que tiene la canasta exportadora más diversificada dada su ventaja geográfica. En el análisis de corto plazo, se encuentra que la variable más endógena es el índice de capital humano y que los shocks a los términos de intercambio tienen mayor impacto cuando la canasta exportadora está concentrada y hay deficiencias en capital humano. Finalmente, dada la evaluación de políticas que promuevan la diversificación y competitividad en el Perú, se recomienda la aplicación de políticas verticales que permitan avanzar en la cadena global de valor de los recursos mineros y políticas horizontales que permitan el desarrollo conjunto de las micro, pequeñas y medianas empresas.

Authors: Zenaida Nadya Alcarraz Molina
Full document:2020, Alcarraz Molina, Determinantes de la diversificación de exportaciones en la Alianza del Pacífico 1980-2017 _un enfoque de cointegración de panel

Abstract:
The existing research on onomastics does not sufficiently reflect upon the relation between cultural codes and demonyms, considering that demonyms universally represent linguistic devices for expressing territorial and regional identity. The article focuses on the complex polyparadigmal analysis of the system of demonyms related to the macrotoponymy of the four founding countries of the Pacific Alliance: Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. Each of the four founding countries of the Pacific Alliance is characterised by the uniqueness of its culture, historical development, the specifics of the national variant of Spanish that reflects the indigenous influence of substrates, and society’s collective values.

The article’s research tasks consist of systemising the morphological devices and the cultural layers of demonyms connected with the administrative division of given countries, detecting the variation parameters, comparing them from the linguacultural point of view. The research’s main material has been 100 official demonyms of Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru, and 31 variative denominations. The research materials are based on the official websites of the administrative units of the four countries, dictionaries data, diverse types of texts and discourse, and the notes of the informants’ speech. The research uses such methods as the continuous sampling method based on Internet sources, the analysis of dictionary definitions, the method of semantic interpretation, the morphological analysis, combined with interviews with informants whose interaction is made possible by the complex polyparadigmal analysis of the material.

The authors determined a series of lexemes that function as demonyms and analysed their form and content from the linguistic perspective. It has been revealed that the main tendency in the formation of suppletive demonyms for macrotoponyms is the terrain features and the assessment of ethnic background or mentality. The analysed demonyms manifest the relations of intralingual, intervariant homonymy, as well as hypo-hyperonymic relations. The complex analysis of the material has provided an opportunity to represent the demonym systems of Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Peru as multidimensional and at the same time inherent to the unified functional continuum of the entity in Spanish-speaking countries. The research results have concluded that demonyms act as independent notions and generators of new meanings and allusions. It is recommended to use transliteration when translating suppletive demonyms. Simultaneously, their decoding amplifies the linguacultural competence of Spanish-language students and harmonises the intercultural dialogue with the native speakers of Chilean, Colombian, Mexican and Peruvian national variants of Spanish in the areas of education and business.

Resumen:
No disponible

Authors: Olga Chesnokova & Marija Radović
Full document: 2020, Demonyms in the Pacific Alliance countries- morphological and semantic variation

Abstract:
Considering the importance that the Pacific Alliance has acquired as an economic bloc, the purpose of this investigation is to show the trade relations process of its members, and how Panama would benefit greatly from becoming a member of the alliance. Panama’s international relations would be strengthened, economic integration improved and at the same time, this membership would allow Panama to keep contributing and improving in world trade. The Republic of Panama has made great strides in international trade, one of which was expanding the Panama Canal, its offer and capacity for its users. The investigation details the participation that Panama has had as an observer member and the relationships with each Pacific Alliance member that have improved in recent years. Thus, Panama complies with most of the possible requirements for accession to this integration mechanism.

Resumen:
Teniendo en cuenta la importancia que actualmente ha ido adquiriendo la Alianza del Pacifico como bloque económico, el presente trabajo pretende mostrar el proceso en las relaciones comerciales de sus países miembros, y cómo Panamá saldría beneficiado en ser un integrante más de este bloque, pues se fortalecerían sus relaciones internacionales, mejoraría la integración económica, lo que le permitiría al mismo tiempo seguir desarrollando aportes y mejoras en el comercio mundial. La República de Panamá ha hecho grandes avances en el comercio internacional como lo fue la ampliación del Canal de Panamá, lo que le ha permitido ampliar su oferta y capacidad de usuarios. Durante la investigación se detalla la participación que ha tenido Panamá como miembro observador de la alianza y las relaciones que han ido mejorando en los últimos años con cada uno de los miembros de la Alianza del Pacífico, cumpliendo así con la mayoría de los requisitos posibles para que se pueda dar su acceso a la integración.

Authors: Juan Pablo Galvis Cárdenas & Kevin Rodríguez Villa
Spanish Title: Influencia de una posible participación de Panamá en la Alianza del Pacífico
Full document: 2020, Rodriguez & Galvis, Influencia de una posible participación de Panamá en la Alianza del Pacífico

Abstract:
Not available

Resumen:
En un contexto internacional convulso, marcado por el resurgimiento de nacionalismos, populismos y proteccionismos comerciales, la Alianza del Pacífico (ap) busca consolidarse como un mecanismo de integración pragmático y novedoso en América Latina, con proyección extrarregional y sin estructuras institucionales o ideológicas que ralenticen su crecimiento o confronten a otros bloques en materia de desarrollo regional.

(…)
Este trabajo colectivo se da a la tarea de analizar la genealogía de la Alianza del Pacífico, iniciada desde 2011, así como los retos que enfrenta para su consolidación y las oportunidades políticas, comerciales, educativas y sociales que se puede apreciar en la Alianza.

La obra consta de tres apartados en los que la diplomacia, los temas estratégicos del bloque y la relación de la Alianza del Pacífico con otros actores internacionales y regionales permiten desmenuzar el pasado, el presente y los desafíos que en el futuro inmediato afrontará el mecanismo de integración latinoamericano.

Spanish Title: Retos y oportunidades de la Alianza del Pacífico en el actual contexto internacional convulso
Authors/Editors: Mariana Aparicio & Tomás Milton Bravo
Full document: 2019, Aparicio & Milton, Retos_y_oportunidades_de_la_Alianza_del